Water is a vital and renewable natural resource, essential for human survival, agriculture, industry and the functioning of ecosystems. Yet in India, the availability of water is highly uneven in space and time. Some regions are flood-prone while others suffer from severe drought, and the rapid growth of population, urbanisation and economic development has put enormous pressure on water resources. This chapter studies the distribution of water in India, the different uses of water, the problems of scarcity and water conflicts, and the multipurpose river valley projects and their consequences.
The chapter also emphasises the traditional and indigenous systems of water management, which have been used in India for centuries, and the modern methods of rain-water harvesting. The importance of involving local communities in water management, and the concept of sustainable use of water resources, are central themes. Water is a community resource, and its equitable and sustainable use is a major challenge for the country's future.
For the board examination, students must understand the pattern of water availability in India, the differences between irrigation and multipurpose projects, the distribution of dams on a map, the adverse effects of multipurpose projects, and the various methods of rain-water harvesting practised in different regions. The chapter encourages students to think critically about the social, economic and environmental costs and benefits of large-scale water projects.
Water scarcity is a growing problem in India. Water is a renewable resource, but fresh water is a finite resource, and its availability is affected by the monsoon, which is unevenly distributed. Water scarcity does not only occur where water is physically scarce; it can also occur where water is available but is inaccessible, or where the demand for water exceeds the available supply. The growing population, the expansion of agriculture, the growth of industry and urbanisation have all increased the demand for water.
In the cities, the demand for water has grown rapidly, and the growing pollution of water bodies has made many sources of water unusable. The over-exploitation of groundwater, through borewells and tubewells, has led to the depletion of the groundwater table in many parts of the country. The misuse and wastage of water, the lack of storage facilities, and the poor management of water resources have all contributed to the problem. Water scarcity, therefore, is as much a problem of management and access as of physical availability.
The growing scarcity of water has led to serious social conflicts. There are conflicts between different users of water, between states over the sharing of river waters, and between the upstream and downstream regions. The inter-state disputes over the sharing of the Cauvery, Krishna and Godavari rivers are examples of such conflicts. The chapter stresses that the equitable distribution of water and the resolution of water conflicts require both better technology and better governance, and the active participation of local communities.
Multi-purpose river projects, also known as multi-purpose projects, are large dams built on rivers for a variety of purposes: irrigation, electricity generation, flood control, water supply for domestic and industrial use, and navigation. In India, the Bhakra-Nangal project on the river Satluj in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh, and the Hirakud project on the river Mahanadi in Odisha, are the first and the largest multi-purpose projects. These projects were considered the 'temples of modern India' by Jawaharlal Nehru, as they were seen as instruments of development and modernisation.
The multi-purpose projects have brought many benefits. They have provided irrigation to millions of hectares of land, generated hydroelectric power, helped in flood control and provided water for domestic and industrial use. The Rajasthan Canal (now Indira Gandhi Canal) project has brought water to the desert areas of Rajasthan, and the Narmada project and the Tehri Dam are among the largest projects. These projects have transformed the economies of many regions and have supported the growth of agriculture and industry.
However, multi-purpose projects have also had serious adverse effects. Dams have displaced large numbers of people, often tribal and rural communities, who lost their homes, lands and livelihoods without adequate rehabilitation. The submergence of forests and agricultural land has led to environmental damage, and the rivers have been silted and polluted. The regulation of river flows has disrupted the natural flow of rivers, affecting the downstream areas, the deltas and the fisheries. The ecological and social costs of large dams have therefore been the subject of intense debate, and the need for a more balanced and sustainable approach to water development has been recognised.
Dams have become a major source of social conflict in India. There are conflicts between the people displaced by the dams and the governments and project authorities. The Narmada Bachao Andolan, led by Medha Patkar, was a powerful movement against the building of large dams on the Narmada river, demanding proper rehabilitation of the displaced people. The Tehri Dam in Uttarakhand and the dams on the Mahanadi have also been contested, and the movements against the dams have highlighted the social and environmental costs of large projects.
There are also inter-state conflicts over the sharing of river waters. The rivers flow through more than one state, and the states argue over the allocation of water, leading to disputes that are often referred to arbitration tribunals or the Supreme Court. The Cauvery water dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, and the disputes over the Krishna and the Godavari rivers, are long-standing examples. These conflicts show that water is not only an economic resource but also a political one, and that the equitable sharing of water requires cooperation between states.
The dam-related conflicts also reflect the tension between development and displacement. While the dams promise irrigation and electricity, they displace people who are often poor, tribal and marginalised. The chapter argues that development projects must be planned with the participation of the affected people, and that the rehabilitation of the displaced must be an integral part of such projects. The 'dam' question is therefore not merely a technical question but a deeply social and ethical one.
Rain water harvesting is an ancient practice in India, and it is a method of collecting and storing rain water for future use. Different regions of India have developed their own methods of rain water harvesting, suited to their climate and their needs. In the semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan, the tanks built in the houses and the community ponds stored rain water, and the khadin system and the kunds were used to collect rain water. In the Thar desert, the 'baolis' or stepwells were used, which had steps leading down to the water.
In the hilly regions of Meghalaya, the bamboo drip irrigation system is used, in which water from the streams is brought to the fields through bamboo pipes. In the Western Himalayas, the kul and gul systems, in which the streams are diverted through channels, are used for irrigation. In the flood plains of the northeastern states, the flood water is stored in the lakes and ponds. In the Deccan plateau, the tanka system and the 'johad' are used to collect rain water in the fields. Each of these traditional systems is an example of how communities have sustainably managed their water resources for centuries.
The modern revival of rain water harvesting is connected to the need for sustainable water management. Rooftop rain water harvesting, in which the rain water from the rooftops is collected and stored, or allowed to recharge the groundwater, is being promoted in many cities, and in some states it has been made compulsory for new buildings. The rain water harvesting not only conserves water but also helps in recharging the depleted groundwater table. The chapter stresses that the traditional wisdom of water conservation, combined with modern technology, can help solve the water crisis.
| Multi-purpose Project | River | State(s)/Region |
|---|---|---|
| Bhakra-Nangal | Satluj | Punjab and Himachal Pradesh |
| Hirakud | Mahanadi | Odisha |
| Indira Gandhi Canal (Rajasthan Canal) | Sutlej waters (to Rajasthan) | Rajasthan |
| Tehri Dam | Bhagirathi | Uttarakhand |
| Sardar Sarovar (Narmada) | Narmada | Gujarat, MP, Maharashtra, Rajasthan |
| Rain Water Harvesting Method | Region | Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Khadins and kunds | Rajasthan (arid regions) | Collect rain water for agriculture and drinking |
| Baolis (stepwells) | Thar desert | Steps leading down to the water |
| Bamboo drip irrigation | Meghalaya (hilly region) | Water brought through bamboo pipes to fields |
| Kul and gul | Western Himalayas | Streams diverted through channels for irrigation |
| Johad | Deccan plateau / Rajasthan | Check dams collecting rain water in the fields |
Water is the most essential of natural resources, yet its uneven availability and growing scarcity have made it a source of serious conflict in India. The rapid growth of population, agriculture, industry and urbanisation has increased the demand for water, while pollution, wastage and the over-exploitation of groundwater have reduced the usable supply. Multi-purpose river projects have brought irrigation, power and flood control, but they have also displaced people, damaged the environment and generated intense social conflicts. The ancient wisdom of rain water harvesting, adapted to each region's climate and needs, offers a sustainable path forward, and its modern revival through rooftop harvesting and groundwater recharge is a practical response to the crisis. The chapter's central message is that water must be treated as a shared community resource, managed sustainably and equitably, if the country is to secure its water future.