The relationship between economic development and the environment has become a central concern of economic policy. Economic activity draws on the environment as a source of resources and as a sink for wastes. When the pace of resource extraction and waste generation exceeds the regenerative and absorptive capacity of the environment, environmental degradation occurs, threatening the very foundation of future development. The concept of sustainable development emerged from this recognition that growth today must not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
Sustainable development is defined as development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This concept was given global prominence by the Brundtland Commission Report of 1987. It rests on the recognition that economic, social, and environmental objectives must be pursued together, and that the environment cannot be treated as an unlimited resource.
The chapter on environment and sustainable development examines the role of the environment in the economy, the nature and causes of environmental problems such as pollution and resource depletion, the measurement of environmental damage, and the strategies for sustainable development that can reconcile growth with environmental protection.
The environment performs three essential functions in an economy:
$$\text{Environmental balance} = \text{Rate of resource regeneration} \geq \text{Rate of resource use}$$
$$\text{And: Rate of waste absorption} \geq \text{Rate of waste generation}$$
When either of these conditions is violated, environmental degradation occurs.
India faces serious environmental problems. The major forms of pollution are air pollution, water pollution, land (soil) degradation, and noise pollution. The levels of air pollution in many Indian cities are among the highest in the world. Water bodies are polluted by industrial effluents, sewage, and agricultural run-off. Deforestation, soil erosion, and the degradation of land due to overgrazing and overuse of chemical fertilizers are widespread. The excessive and unsustainable use of groundwater, and the pollution of rivers and lakes, threaten water availability and quality.
The environmental problems in India are closely linked to population pressure, the pattern of industrialisation, the nature of agricultural practices, urbanisation, and poverty. Environmental degradation falls most heavily on the poor, who depend directly on natural resources for their livelihoods.
Air pollution is caused by the emission of gases and particulates from industries, vehicles, and the burning of biomass. The health consequences include respiratory diseases, cardiovascular problems, and premature mortality. Air pollution also contributes to global warming and climate change through the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide.
Water pollution arises from the discharge of industrial effluents, domestic sewage, agricultural run-off containing fertilizers and pesticides, and the dumping of solid waste into rivers, lakes, and oceans. Polluted water causes water-borne diseases, destroys aquatic life, and reduces the availability of clean drinking water.
Land degradation includes soil erosion, the depletion of soil fertility, the accumulation of salts in irrigated soils, and the pollution of soil by chemicals and wastes. It reduces the productivity of agriculture and endangers food security.
The global environmental issues include climate change, the depletion of the ozone layer, the loss of biodiversity, and the degradation of forests and oceans. India has responded to these challenges by participating in international agreements such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement (2015), in which India committed to reducing the emission intensity of its GDP and increasing the share of non-fossil energy capacity.
India's National Action Plan on Climate Change identifies eight missions, including the National Solar Mission, the National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency, and the National Water Mission, to address climate change through adaptation and mitigation.
Sustainable development requires the use of renewable resources at rates that do not exceed their regeneration, the efficient use of non-renewable resources, and the reduction of waste. Energy efficiency, the promotion of renewable energy, and the conservation of water and forests are essential strategies.
The strategies for sustainable development in India include the use of non-conventional energy sources such as solar and wind power, the promotion of organic farming, the use of bio-compost and natural pest control, the efficient use of water through drip and sprinkler irrigation, the expansion of the public transport system and the use of clean fuels, the recycling of waste, and the protection of forests through afforestation and the participation of local communities.
$$\text{Sustainable development path} = \text{Economic growth} + \text{Social equity} + \text{Environmental protection}$$
| Function | Description |
|---|---|
| Source of resources | Supplies land, water, minerals, energy |
| Sink for wastes | Absorbs and assimilates pollutants |
| Life support | Air, water, climate for survival |
| Problem | Cause |
|---|---|
| Air pollution | Vehicles, industries, biomass burning |
| Water pollution | Effluents, sewage, agricultural run-off |
| Land degradation | Erosion, overgrazing, chemical use |
| Deforestation | Clearing of forests for agriculture and industry |
| Groundwater depletion | Excessive and unsustainable extraction |
| Strategy | Example |
|---|---|
| Non-conventional energy | Solar, wind power |
| Organic farming | Bio-compost, natural pest control |
| Water efficiency | Drip and sprinkler irrigation |
| Clean transport | Public transport, CNG |
| Waste management | Recycling and reuse |
| Forest protection | Afforestation, community participation |
The environment is the ultimate foundation of economic activity, supplying resources, absorbing wastes, and supporting life. When the pace of development exceeds the regenerative and absorptive capacity of the environment, pollution, resource depletion, and degradation result, threatening both present welfare and future prospects. Sustainable development offers the way forward by ensuring that economic growth, social equity, and environmental protection advance together. India's adoption of renewable energy, organic farming, efficient water use, clean transport, and forest protection reflects a growing commitment to sustainability, while international commitments such as the Paris Agreement anchor the country's efforts to address global climate change. The challenge for policy is to transform these strategies into a pattern of development that is both prosperous and sustainable.