South Asia is the region of the world that lies to the south of the Himalayas, comprising the countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives and Afghanistan. The region is home to more than one fifth of humanity and shares a common history, culture and colonial experience. Yet it is also a region of great political diversity, with parliamentary democracies, monarchies and military-led states existing side by side. The countries of South Asia cooperate within the framework of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), while also facing many tensions, especially between India and Pakistan.
South Asia occupies a central place in world politics because of its location, population, resources and strategic importance. The region has seen both democratic advances and democratic setbacks, both economic growth and persistent poverty, both cooperation and conflict. Understanding the political systems, problems and prospects of South Asian countries is essential for understanding contemporary international politics. This chapter examines each country of South Asia, the regional organisation SAARC, and the region's prospects for peace and democracy.
India is the largest and most powerful country of South Asia. It is the world's largest democracy, with a federal parliamentary system. India has a rapidly growing economy, a modernising military and a nuclear weapons programme. India has been a democracy since its independence in 1947, except for the period of the Emergency from 1975 to 1977. India's foreign policy emphasises its role as a leading power in the region and the world.
Pakistan came into existence in 1947 as a homeland for the Muslims of the subcontinent. Its political history has been unstable, with long periods of military rule alternating with democratic governments. Pakistan has been ruled by military leaders like General Ayub Khan, General Zia-ul-Haq and General Pervez Musharraf. Pakistan's economy faces serious challenges, and it has been a major centre of international concern because of terrorism. Pakistan's relations with India have been tense, especially over the issue of Kashmir.
Bangladesh emerged as an independent country in 1971 after a war of liberation from Pakistan. It is one of the world's most densely populated countries. Despite its poverty and vulnerability to natural disasters, Bangladesh has made impressive progress in recent decades in economic growth, education and poverty reduction. Bangladesh has experimented with both democratic and military governments, and it has struggled to maintain democratic stability. Its relations with India have generally been cooperative, though issues of illegal migration and river waters sometimes strain the relationship.
Sri Lanka gained independence from Britain in 1948. It was a democracy but faced a major challenge from the ethnic conflict between the Sinhala majority and the Tamil minority. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) fought a long civil war for a separate Tamil state, which lasted from 1983 until 2009, when the government finally defeated the rebels. The civil war caused enormous human suffering, and reconciliation between the communities remains an unfinished task. Sri Lanka's relationship with India is close but sometimes complicated by the treatment of the Tamil minority.
Nepal is a landlocked country between India and China. For most of its history it was a monarchy. In 1990, Nepal became a constitutional monarchy, but a Maoist insurgency from 1996 led to a civil war. The monarchy was abolished in 2008, and Nepal became a federal democratic republic. Nepal has faced political instability with frequent changes of government, but its democratic institutions are taking root. Nepal's relationship with India is close, based on geography, culture and economics, though it also seeks good relations with China.
Bhutan is a small, landlocked Himalayan kingdom between India and China. It was a monarchy, and in 2008 it made a peaceful transition to a constitutional monarchy with elections. Bhutan is famous for its policy of Gross National Happiness, which prioritises the well-being of its people over purely economic growth. Bhutan's relationship with India is special, with close economic, strategic and political ties, and India provides significant aid to Bhutan.
The Maldives is a chain of islands in the Indian Ocean. It became independent in 1965 and is the smallest country in Asia in terms of land area and population. Its economy depends heavily on tourism and fishing. The Maldives transitioned to a multi-party democracy in 2008, but its politics have been unstable, with frequent changes of government. Its strategic location in the Indian Ocean gives it importance for India's maritime security.
Afghanistan is at the crossroads of South and Central Asia. It has suffered decades of war, from the Soviet invasion of 1979 to the civil war of the 1990s, the rule of the Taliban and the American-led war after 2001. In August 2021, the Taliban returned to power as the USA withdrew its forces. Afghanistan's political future remains uncertain, and its security and humanitarian situation is grave. India has long-standing cultural and development ties with Afghanistan, though it has been limited in its ability to influence events there.
The history of democracy in South Asia is mixed. India has maintained democracy continuously, but other countries have experienced interruptions. Pakistan has spent long periods under military rule. Bangladesh and Sri Lanka have also seen emergency and undemocratic periods. Nepal has moved from monarchy to democracy. The South Asian experience shows that democracy in the region is fragile but resilient, and that the people of the region repeatedly demand democratic government.
South Asia has seen a variety of movements for peace and democracy. Democratic movements have forced military rulers to return to power in Pakistan, and popular pressure has often led to free elections. The region also has a strong civil society that campaigns for human rights, women's rights and peace between India and Pakistan. These movements show that democracy is an ongoing project in South Asia, sustained by the aspirations of its people.
India, as the largest democracy in the region, has a special responsibility to promote democracy and stability in South Asia. India's foreign policy has sometimes been criticised for being heavy-handed towards its smaller neighbours, but it has also provided aid and support for democracy and development. India's own democratic experience is a model for the region, and its economic growth gives it influence in the region.
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was founded in 1985. Its members are India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives and Afghanistan, which joined in 2007. SAARC was formed to promote economic and social development, regional cooperation and mutual understanding among the countries of South Asia. Its secretariat is in Kathmandu, Nepal.
SAARC has achieved some cooperation in areas of common interest, such as the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA), which was agreed in 2004 to reduce tariffs among members. SAARC also cooperates on issues like food security, disaster management, education and culture. It holds regular summits and has established various specialised bodies.
SAARC has been severely limited by the political tensions between India and Pakistan. Because of these tensions, SAARC summits have often been postponed or cancelled, and cooperation has progressed slowly. The region remains one of the least integrated regions of the world, with limited trade and movement of people among the South Asian countries. The potential of SAARC remains largely unrealised.
Because of the limitations of SAARC, South Asian countries have explored other forms of cooperation. India has built closer ties with Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan through bilateral agreements. There have been proposals to cooperate with Southeast Asia through the BIMSTEC group, which brings together India and other Bay of Bengal countries. These initiatives reflect the search for more effective regional cooperation in the face of SAARC's limitations.
The relationship between India and Pakistan has been conflictual since independence. The Partition of 1947, which accompanied the creation of Pakistan, was accompanied by mass violence and the largest migration in history. The most intractable dispute between the two countries is over Kashmir. The region of Jammu and Kashmir has been divided between India and Pakistan since 1947, and the two countries have fought wars over it in 1947-48, 1965, 1971 and 1999 (the Kargil conflict).
Despite the conflicts, India and Pakistan have repeatedly attempted peace. The Simla Agreement of 1972 and the Lahore Declaration of 1999 sought to resolve differences through bilateral dialogue. Confidence-building measures, such as the bus service between Lahore and Amritsar and the Srinagar-Muzaffarabad bus, were introduced to improve people-to-people contact. However, peace processes have repeatedly broken down because of terrorism and the unresolved Kashmir issue.
Both India and Pakistan tested nuclear weapons in 1998, making the region one of the most dangerous in the world. The nuclear tests increased the stakes of the India-Pakistan conflict, since any war between them could escalate to a nuclear exchange. At the same time, nuclear weapons have made both countries more cautious, since neither can risk an all-out war. The international community has urged both countries to resume dialogue and to maintain peace.
| Country | Political System | Special Feature |
|---|---|---|
| India | Federal parliamentary democracy | Largest democracy, continuous democracy since 1947 |
| Pakistan | Mixed - military and democratic rule | Long periods of military rule |
| Bangladesh | Democracy with interruptions | Emerged as independent state in 1971 |
| Sri Lanka | Democracy with ethnic conflict | Civil war ended in 2009 |
| Nepal | Federal democratic republic | Monarchy abolished in 2008 |
| Bhutan | Constitutional monarchy | Gross National Happiness |
| Maldives | Multi-party democracy | Smallest country, Indian Ocean location |
| Afghanistan | Post-war uncertain order | Taliban returned to power in 2021 |
| Year | Conflict | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| 1947-48 | First Kashmir War | Partition of Kashmir |
| 1965 | Second India-Pakistan War | Stalemate, Simla Agreement 1972 |
| 1971 | Bangladesh Liberation War | Creation of Bangladesh |
| 1999 | Kargil Conflict | Indian forces expelled intruders |
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Founded | 1985 |
| Members | 8 (including Afghanistan from 2007) |
| Secretariat | Kathmandu, Nepal |
| Free trade initiative | SAFTA agreed in 2004 |
| Main limitation | India-Pakistan tension |
Contemporary South Asia is a region of striking contrasts. It contains the world's largest democracy, one of the fastest growing economies, and some of the poorest and most conflict-ridden states. The countries of the region share a common history and culture, yet they are divided by borders, conflicts and political differences. The record of democracy in South Asia is mixed but shows resilience, as the people of the region repeatedly demand democratic government. SAARC was created in 1985 to promote cooperation, but its potential remains unrealised because of the persistent tension between India and Pakistan. The nuclear tests of 1998 made the region more dangerous, but also made both countries more cautious. The future of South Asia depends on the consolidation of democracy, the resolution of the India-Pakistan dispute, and the strengthening of regional cooperation. As the largest country, India has a special responsibility to promote peace, democracy and development in the region.