Indian politics since the 1980s has undergone profound changes. The era of Congress dominance ended, and the party system became more competitive and fragmented. Coalition governments became the norm at the centre, with no single party able to win a majority on its own. At the same time, new political forces emerged: caste-based parties, regional parties, and parties based on religion and identity. The nature of the state, the economy and the political culture also changed. These developments transformed Indian democracy in fundamental ways.
The changes in Indian politics can be understood under several themes: the end of the Congress system and the rise of coalition politics, the rise of the OBCs and Mandal politics, the rise of the BJP and Hindutva politics, the decline of the state's authority and its reassertion, the emergence of new social movements, and the changing relationship between politics and society. This chapter examines these developments and their significance for Indian democracy.
The 1980s saw the decline of the Congress as the dominant party. The party split in 1978, and Indira Gandhi returned to power in 1980. However, the Congress could no longer dominate as it had done before the Emergency. The assassination of Indira Gandhi in 1984 brought Rajiv Gandhi to power with a huge majority, but the Congress lost the 1989 elections. The period from 1989 onwards saw the rise of coalition governments at the centre, in which the Congress and the BJP alternated as leading parties within alliances.
From 1989, India entered the era of coalition politics. The National Front government under V.P. Singh, the United Front governments of the 1990s, and the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) under the BJP from 1998, and the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) under the Congress from 2004, all were coalitions. Coalition governments had to manage the demands of many parties, which made politics more complex and more representative. The era of coalitions also gave regional parties a share in national power.
The party system in India has become a genuine multi-party system. No single party can claim to represent the whole nation. The Congress and the BJP are the two main national parties, but there are many regional and state parties with significant influence. Coalitions and alliances have become essential for forming governments. This has made Indian politics more competitive and more representative, but also more unstable and fragmented.
The demand for reservations for the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) has been one of the most important developments in Indian politics. The Mandal Commission, set up in 1978 under B.P. Mandal, recommended reservations of 27 percent for OBCs in government jobs and educational institutions. The report of the Commission was implemented by the government of V.P. Singh in August 1990, which announced reservations for the OBCs in central government jobs.
The implementation of the Mandal recommendations transformed Indian politics. It gave political voice to the OBCs, who constitute a large section of Indian society. The decision was opposed by those who argued that reservations should be based on economic criteria rather than caste, and there were violent protests, including self-immolations by students. The Supreme Court, in the Indra Sawhney case of 1992, upheld the reservations but ruled against reservations in promotions and imposed a ceiling on total reservations.
Mandal politics led to the rise of parties representing the OBCs and the backward castes. Parties like the Janata Dal, the Samajwadi Party, the Rashtriya Janata Dal and the Bahujan Samaj Party (which represented the Dalits) emerged as significant forces. These parties challenged the dominance of the upper castes in politics and brought new social groups into political leadership. The politics of Mandal and caste has been one of the defining features of recent Indian politics.
The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) grew rapidly from the 1980s onwards. It was formed in 1980 from the Jan Sangh. The BJP rose to prominence by championing the cause of Hindutva, a form of Hindu nationalism. The party advocated a uniform civil code, the abrogation of Article 370, and the construction of a Ram temple at Ayodhya.
The Ayodhya movement became the most powerful expression of Hindutva politics. The demand for the construction of a Ram temple at the site of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya, which Hindus consider the birthplace of Lord Ram, mobilised millions of people. The BJP, under the leadership of L.K. Advani, organised a Ram Rath Yatra in 1990. In December 1992, the Babri Masjid was demolished by a mob of kar sevaks, an event that had profound consequences for Indian politics and communal relations.
The BJP came to power in 1998 at the head of the NDA coalition, and it has been the dominant party in Indian politics since 2014, when it won a majority in the Lok Sabha under the leadership of Narendra Modi. The politics of Hindutva has had a major impact on the nature of Indian nationalism, secularism and the relationship between religion and politics. The Supreme Court, in 2019, gave its verdict in the Ayodhya case, allowing the construction of a temple at the disputed site while allocating an alternative site for a mosque.
The 1980s and 1990s saw a decline in the authority of the Indian state. There were communal riots, regional conflicts, insurgencies and terrorist attacks. The state's ability to provide security, deliver services and maintain order was questioned. The political system was also affected by criminalisation, corruption and the misuse of power. These developments weakened the credibility of the state and the political system.
Since the 1990s, and especially since 2014, there has been a reassertion of state authority. The state has sought to restore order, improve governance and project a strong image. Measures have been taken against terrorism and insurgency, economic reforms have been pursued, and the state has projected itself as a provider of welfare through programmes like digital identity, financial inclusion and welfare schemes. The reassertion of the state has been accompanied by debates about the balance between security and liberty, and between the centralisation and federalisation of power.
Recent Indian politics has seen the rise of new social movements, beyond the traditional parties. These include the environmental movements, the women's movement, movements for civil liberties and human rights, the farmers' movements and the anti-corruption movement. The anti-corruption movement, led by Anna Hazare in 2011, and the farmers' protests of 2020-21, brought large numbers of people into politics outside the party framework.
The political agenda of India has changed. Issues such as development, governance, corruption, identity, environment, gender and religion have become central to political debate. The rise of television news and social media has transformed political communication. Politics is now conducted in a much more public and contested manner. The relationship between politics and society has changed, with new social groups entering the political arena.
Indian democracy has become more participatory, more contested and more diverse. The voter turnout has remained high, and new social groups have become politically active. At the same time, democracy faces challenges: the concentration of power, the criminalisation of politics, the role of money in elections, and the use of religion and caste in mobilising voters. The future of Indian democracy depends on how these challenges are addressed.
| Development | Significance |
|---|---|
| End of Congress dominance | Coalition era from 1989 |
| Mandal politics | Rise of OBC parties, reservations |
| Rise of the BJP | Hindutva politics, NDA and majority after 2014 |
| Decline and reassertion of the state | Security, governance and welfare |
| New social movements | Environment, women's, anti-corruption |
| Coalition | Period | Leading Party |
|---|---|---|
| National Front | 1989-1991 | Janata Dal, V.P. Singh |
| United Front | 1996-1998 | Janata Dal and allies |
| NDA | 1998-2004 | BJP, Vajpayee |
| UPA | 2004-2014 | Congress, Manmohan Singh |
| NDA | 2014 onwards | BJP, Narendra Modi |
| Item | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commission | Mandal Commission, set up 1978 |
| Chairperson | B.P. Mandal |
| Recommendation | 27 percent reservation for OBCs |
| Implementation | August 1990 by V.P. Singh government |
| Supreme Court | Indra Sawhney case, 1992 |
Recent developments in Indian politics have transformed the nature of Indian democracy. The end of the Congress system and the rise of coalition politics made the party system more competitive, fragmented and representative. Mandal politics brought the OBCs and the backward castes into the centre of political life, and the rise of the BJP and Hindutva politics changed the terms of political debate. The authority of the state declined in the 1980s and 1990s and has been reasserted since 2014. New social movements have brought issues of environment, gender, corruption and farmers' rights into the political arena. Indian democracy has become more participatory, contested and diverse, but it also faces serious challenges, including the concentration of power, the criminalisation of politics, the role of money and the politics of religion and caste. The future of Indian democracy depends on whether these challenges can be met while preserving the ideals of the Constitution and the democratic spirit of the Indian people.