In the earlier chapters, we saw how some people grew crops, lived in villages and cities, and composed books like the Vedas. Over time, some villages grew larger and more powerful, and their leaders became kings. New ideas about how rulers should be chosen developed, and the administration of large kingdoms grew more complex.
This chapter tells us how some men became rulers, how the idea of kingship developed, and how some regions in the subcontinent came to be ruled not by kings but by groups of people, called ganas and sanghas. We will also learn about the varnas (groups of people based on their occupation) and the different kinds of taxes that people had to pay.
The most important question this chapter deals with is how people in the past were governed. By studying the Mahajanapadas and the famous republic of the Vajji confederacy, we understand the two main forms of government in ancient India: monarchy and the republic.
During the Rigvedic period, the leader of a jana was called the rajana. At first, kingship was not hereditary; leaders were chosen by the people. But gradually, some men became powerful and passed on their power to their sons.
The leaders who had the greatest number of cattle, the largest families and the most support from the people became the strongest. Some leaders claimed to be divine and performed big sacrifices such as the vajapeya and the ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), which showed their power and wealth. Over time, kings began to demand taxes, build large armies, and control more and more territory. This is how kingdoms and dynasties developed in the subcontinent.
The word janapada means the land where a jana (people) set its foot or settled down. Around 3000 years ago, people began to settle permanently in different parts of the subcontinent, and these settlements became known as janapadas.
Gradually, some janapadas grew into larger kingdoms called mahajanapadas. Around 2500 years ago, there were about sixteen mahajanapadas. These were much larger than the janapadas and were controlled by powerful rulers. Each mahajanapada had a capital city, often fortified with walls of wood, brick or stone. The ruler collected taxes from the people to maintain the army and the administration. Important mahajanapadas included Magadha, Vajji, Kashi, Kosala, Anga, Avanti and Gandhara.
The capitals of the mahajanapadas were fortified. Forts were built of bricks, stone and timber. These forts protected the people from attacks and helped the rulers to control their territory.
The building of forts was a costly affair, so the rulers needed more money. They collected taxes from the farmers, herders and traders. The capitals of the mahajanapadas were also important trading centres, where goods from distant places were bought and sold. The fortified capital became a symbol of the ruler's power and wealth.
To maintain armies and build forts, the rulers needed money, which they obtained through taxes. Different groups of people paid different kinds of taxes:
Taxes were collected by officials and could be paid in cash or in kind (goods). People generally did not have a choice in paying taxes; they had to pay what the ruler demanded.
As the mahajanapadas grew, rulers wanted more produce from their lands, so they encouraged farming. This led to several changes in agriculture:
These changes increased the agricultural output, which meant more taxes for the rulers and more food for the people.
With the growth of kingdoms and trade, new groups of people emerged in society. Some people became rich by trade and craft, while others remained poor. Alongside the farmers and craftspersons, there were also slaves, who were captured in wars or bought and sold like animals.
Some men became leaders and were known for their wisdom. Society came to be divided into groups based on the work people did. These groups were called varnas: - Brahmins: priests and scholars who performed rituals. - Kshatriyas: rulers and warriors. - Vaishyas: farmers, herders and traders. - Shudras: servants and labourers who served the other three groups.
Some groups, called outcastes, were not included in the varna system and did the work that others would not do.
The varnas divided society into groups based on occupation. Children usually followed the occupation of their parents, so the group into which one was born determined what one would do in life. This made it very difficult for people to change their occupation or status.
Over time, this division became very rigid and unfair. The people who suffered most were the Shudras and the outcastes, who were treated badly. We must remember that the varna system was later criticised by many thinkers, and the Mahabharata contains a story which says that a person is not born a brahmin but becomes one by his or her deeds and character. This shows that not everyone agreed with the rigid division of society.
Not all parts of the subcontinent were ruled by kings. Some regions were ruled by groups of people, and these governments were called ganas or sanghas. A gana was an assembly of many people who ruled together, and each member was a raja.
In a gana or sangha, the rajas met in assemblies and took decisions by discussion and voting. There was no single king who ruled alone. The Vajji confederacy, with its capital at Vaishali in present-day Bihar, is the most famous example of a gana or sangha. The Buddha's father was the raja of a gana, which shows that such republics were also found in the Himalayan foothills.
The Vajji confederacy was a confederation of many clans, including the Lichchhavis. Its capital was Vaishali, in present-day Bihar, and it is considered one of the world's first republics.
In the Vajji, matters were decided by assemblies of rajas. There were different committees to look after administration. The confederacy was so powerful that it was difficult for even the Magadhan ruler to defeat it. This shows that government by many could sometimes be more powerful than government by one. However, the confederacy was finally defeated after many years of effort.
Magadha became the most important mahajanapada. It was located in the fertile region of the river Ganga, with forests that provided timber and elephants for the army. The rulers of Magadha were ambitious and powerful.
Important rulers of Magadha were Bimbisara, who lived about 2500 years ago, and his son Ajatasattu. They captured many neighbouring territories and built a powerful army. The capital of Magadha was initially Rajagriha (Rajgir), and later it was shifted to Pataliputra (Patna), which became one of the most famous cities of ancient India. From Magadha grew the great Mauryan empire, which we will study in a later chapter.
| Mahajanapada | Location (present-day region) |
|---|---|
| Magadha | South Bihar |
| Vajji | North Bihar (capital Vaishali) |
| Kosala | Uttar Pradesh (capital Ayodhya) |
| Kashi | Uttar Pradesh (capital Varanasi) |
| Avanti | Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh |
| Gandhara | Parts of Pakistan and Afghanistan |
| Group | Tax Paid |
|---|---|
| Farmers | One-sixth of the produce (bhaga) |
| Herders | Animals and animal products |
| Traders | Taxes on goods bought and sold |
| Craftspersons | Taxes in the form of their products |
The growth of kingdoms marks an important stage in the history of the subcontinent. The janapadas grew into mahajanapadas, ruled by powerful kings who collected taxes, built forts and maintained armies. Agriculture improved with iron ploughshares and the transplantation of paddy, and society became divided into varnas based on occupation.
At the same time, not all people were ruled by kings. The ganas and sanghas, like the Vajji confederacy, were early republics where assemblies of rajas ruled by discussion and voting. Magadha grew to be the most powerful of all kingdoms, laying the foundation for the great Mauryan empire. The forms of government and the ideas of this period shaped the political life of India for centuries to come.