Between the seventh and the twelfth centuries, the political map of India underwent a dramatic transformation. The great regional empires that had dominated earlier centuries gave way to a large number of smaller kingdoms, many of them led by new ruling families that had risen from humble beginnings. Many of these new rulers were originally subordinate chieftains or samantas who, through conquest, war, and clever diplomacy, carved out independent kingdoms for themselves.
This period is especially famous for the rise of the Cholas, one of the greatest dynasties of southern India. Under rulers like Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola, the Chola empire reached the height of its power, with a powerful navy, a highly organised administration, magnificent temples, and flourishing trade with distant lands. This chapter explores how new dynasties emerged, how kings legitimised their power, and how administration worked in the age of the Cholas and their contemporaries.
Many of the new dynasties grew out of the system of samantas, a term derived from the Sanskrit word for "neighbour." Under the Pallavas and Chalukyas, samantas were landlords or subordinate rulers who were expected to provide military support to the main king. Some samantas, especially in the period of the Prathiharas and Rashtrakutas, took advantage of weak kings and gradually asserted their own independence.
These ambitious samantas did not simply declare themselves independent. They built up their military strength, captured territories, and often performed grand rituals like the hiranya-garbha ceremony (the "golden womb"), in which they were reborn as members of the Kshatriya varna after a symbolic ceremony. This ritual legitimised their new royal status. Through such rituals, patronage, and military power, the samantas transformed themselves into powerful kings.
Between the seventh and twelfth centuries, many new dynasties emerged in different parts of the subcontinent. In northern India, the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan fought long wars for supremacy. In the south, the Cholas and the Chalukyas of Kalyana were dominant. In the northwest, the city of Kannauj became a coveted prize, and many wars were fought to control it, giving rise to the idea of a "tripartite struggle" among the three great powers of the age.
The Cholas, whose core territory lay in the fertile valley of the Kaveri river, first rose to prominence under Vijayalaya, who captured the town of Tanjavur in the mid-ninth century. He and his successors built up a powerful state. The kingdom reached its peak under Rajaraja I (985-1014 CE) and his son Rajendra I (1014-1044 CE), who extended the empire deep into the Deccan and even carried out successful naval expeditions.
Rajendra Chola's greatest achievement was his naval campaign in which he conquered parts of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and even raided the kingdom of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia. The Cholas thus controlled a vast maritime empire, and their navy protected trade routes in the Indian Ocean. The Chola kings styled themselves with grand titles and built magnificent temples to display their power and devotion.
The Kaveri delta was one of the most fertile regions of India, and its agricultural wealth was the foundation of Chola power. The Chola rulers invested heavily in irrigation, building canals, wells, and tanks. Huge reservoirs called eris were constructed, and the state levied taxes on the fertile farmland. This agricultural surplus supported a large army, a powerful navy, the building of temples, and the growth of towns such as Thanjavur and Nagapattinam.
The Chola empire was divided into provinces called mandalams, which were further divided into valanadus (regions) and nadus (districts). The smallest unit of administration was the village (ur), which enjoyed a good deal of local self-government. The central administration under the king collected land revenue and maintained the army and navy.
Nadu assemblies, and village assemblies called sabhas, managed local affairs such as irrigation, temples, and disputes. The Chola kings also received large grants of land and titles, and their inscriptions, carved on the walls of temples, are among the richest sources for understanding their administration, taxation, and social life.
The village assemblies (sabhas) of the Chola period were remarkable institutions of local self-government. In the Brahmana villages called urar, members of the sabha were selected by a system of lottery (kudavolai). Committees called variyams looked after different tasks, such as managing the village tank, the temple, the gardens, and the roads. These assemblies functioned with a high degree of autonomy and are often cited as an early example of democratic governance in India.
Kings secured legitimacy by patronising Brahmanas and temples. Many rulers gave grants of land (brahmadeya) to Brahmanas, who then enjoyed tax exemption and helped the king by writing inscriptions and performing rituals that glorified him. The Cholas also built large numbers of temples, both as places of worship and as centres of economic, social, and cultural life.
Temples were not merely places of worship; they were also the largest landholders in the kingdom, employing hundreds of priests, craftsmen, and servants. They functioned as banks, schools, and storehouses, and their construction provided work for thousands of artisans. By building temples, kings both displayed their piety and their wealth, and bound local communities to their rule.
The Rashtrakutas, who overthrew the Chalukyas of Manyakheta, are a good example of a dynasty that rose to power through warfare. Their greatest ruler, Krishna I, built the famous Kailasa temple at Ellora, carved out of a single rock, a testament to the enormous resources the kings could command. Amoghavarsha, another Rashtrakuta ruler, was a famous patron of literature and is credited with writing the Kavirajamarga, an early work on poetics in Kannada.
The Cholas are remembered not just as warriors but also as great patrons of art. The Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavur, built by Rajaraja Chola, is one of the largest temples in India, crowned by a huge dome (shikhara) weighing about 80 tons. The Chola bronze sculptures, especially the Nataraja figure of Shiva as the cosmic dancer, are celebrated worldwide for their beauty and grace.
Temples and bronze idols were not the only art forms the Cholas patronised. The walls of their temples carry hundreds of inscriptions and the famous Tamil epic, the Silappadikaram, and the devotional hymns of the Alvars and Nayanars flourished in this period. The Chola period thus produced some of the greatest cultural treasures of Indian history.
Warfare was a central activity of kings in this period, and its purpose was often economic. Kings sought to control fertile agricultural regions and prosperous towns, and they plundered the treasuries of their enemies. Rajendra Chola, for example, carried away the royal treasures of Sri Lanka, including a golden Buddha, and built a new capital at Gangaikondacholapuram in honour of his campaigns in the north.
The famous scholar and traveller Al-Biruni, who came to India in the eleventh century, observed that Indian rulers plundered each other's wealth, but he also noted that such warfare was common in all parts of the world. War, tribute, and taxation were the main sources of royal wealth in this period, and kings spent heavily on armies, temples, and the maintenance of their courts.
By the end of the twelfth century, the picture began to change once again. Turkish rulers under Muhammad Ghori conquered Delhi and the surrounding regions, and by 1206, with the establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi, a new political order began. Many older dynasties disappeared, but the Cholas and their contemporaries left behind a rich legacy of administration, culture, and architecture that influenced all later Indian kingdoms.
| Dynasty | Region | Important Rulers | Famous Achievement |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gurjara-Pratiharas | Northern India | Bhoja | Ruled Kannauj, fought tripartite struggle |
| Palas | Bengal | Dharmapala | Patronised Buddhism and the university of Nalanda |
| Rashtrakutas | Deccan | Krishna I, Amoghavarsha | Kailasa temple at Ellora |
| Cholas | Tamil Nadu, Kaveri delta | Vijayalaya, Rajaraja I, Rajendra I | Naval power, Brihadeshwara temple |
| Chalukyas of Kalyana | Deccan | Vikramaditya VI | Contested the south with the Cholas |
| Level | Unit | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Highest | Mandalam (province) | Administered by royal officials |
| Regional | Valanadu (region) | Under a governor or official |
| District | Nadu | Managed revenue and local affairs |
| Village | Ur | Local self-government |
| Assembly | Sabha | Managed temple, irrigation, tanks and disputes |
The period of the new kings and kingdoms transformed the political life of India. Ambitious samantas rose to become independent rulers, great dynasties like the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas, Rashtrakutas, and Cholas competed for power and wealth, and kings learned that legitimacy rested on more than swords alone. The Cholas stand out as the most brilliant example, combining agricultural wealth, naval power, efficient local administration, and magnificent art. Their village assemblies and their temples left a lasting imprint on Indian civilisation, and their achievements remain a source of inspiration and study to this day.