Architecture is one of the most visible and lasting records of the past. When we look at the great monuments of India - the temples, mosques, forts, palaces, and tombs - we are looking at the combined achievements of rulers, craftsmen, engineers, and the society that supported them. This chapter explores how architecture evolved between the eighth and the eighteenth centuries, and how the construction of buildings was connected with the power, prestige, and piety of the rulers who commissioned them.
The study of architecture also raises important questions. Why did rulers build so many monuments? How were such huge structures built without modern machinery? Who actually did the work, and who paid for it? By asking these questions, we learn that buildings are not just piles of stone but powerful statements of political and religious authority.
The earliest surviving Indian buildings were made of wood, bamboo, and other perishable materials, which have not survived. From about the sixth century onwards, stone came into regular use. The early temples were built of cut stone, with blocks fitted together so closely that no mortar was needed. Later, the technique of arch and dome was introduced, and builders began to use mortar to bind bricks and stones.
The load-bearing principle in early architecture meant that the weight of the roof rested on the walls. But with the introduction of the true arch and the dome (from the twelfth century onwards, associated with Islamic architecture), weight could be transferred to a few strong points, allowing buildings to have large open interiors. The corbelled arch, made of overlapping stones, was an earlier method of spanning an opening.
The construction of a great building required the transport of huge stones and bricks, which was done using specially constructed ramps, rollers, and barges. The stones were dressed (cut and shaped) on the site by masons. Workers used iron tools, and lime mortar was used for binding. Buildings were then decorated with carved sculptures, painted plaster, and glazed tiles.
The development of the dome and the arch enabled builders to create enormous structures such as the Taj Mahal and the Qutb Minar. The Qutb Minar, for example, is a tower 72.5 metres high, with a spiral staircase of 379 steps. Such buildings could only be built because of the careful organisation of labour, materials, and skilled craftsmanship.
A Hindu temple has a distinctive structure. The innermost part is the garbhagriha (sanctum), which houses the main idol of the deity. Above the garbhagriha rises the shikhara (spire). The temple also has a mandapa (hall) for worshippers, and the entrance is often decorated with sculptures. Temples were built over many decades, sometimes centuries, with funds from kings, queens, nobles, and ordinary devotees.
The temple was not only a place of worship but also a centre of economic and social life. It employed priests, musicians, dancers, and craftspersons. The large temple complexes of the Cholas, the Rajputs, and later the Vijayanagara rulers were the pride of their cities and the focus of festivals and processions.
The mosque, called a masjid in Arabic, is the place where Muslims offer prayers. The word masjid literally means "a place where prostration is done." The mosque typically has a courtyard (sahn), a prayer hall (musalla), a niche in the wall (mihrab) that points towards Mecca, and a minaret (tower) from which the call to prayer is made.
The earliest mosques in India, such as the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque at Delhi, built in the late twelfth century by Qutbuddin Aibak, were constructed by dismantling pillars and other materials from older temples. This practice, called "spolia," was a powerful statement of conquest. Later mosques, such as the Jama Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri, were built as complete new structures in the Indo-Islamic style.
The Cholas were among the greatest temple builders of the south. The Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavur, built by Rajaraja I, is a masterpiece of South Indian architecture. Its shikhara, a huge dome-like structure, weighs about 80 tons and sits atop a tower that rises 60 metres. The temple is decorated with hundreds of sculptures and inscriptions.
Temples were centres of ritual and learning. The Chola temples also served as treasuries, granaries, and the residences of hundreds of priests and servants. The construction of such temples required enormous resources, and the inscriptions on their walls record the gifts of kings, queens, and nobles.
The Sultans of Delhi introduced the dome, the arch, and the minaret to India. The Qutb Minar, begun by Qutbuddin Aibak and completed by Iltutmish, is the tallest stone tower in India. It is built of red sandstone and marble, decorated with carved bands of calligraphy. The Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, near the Qutb Minar, was built using the columns of destroyed temples.
Alauddin Khalji built the Alai Darwaza, a magnificent gateway with a true arch and dome, near the Qutb complex. The Tughluq rulers built forts and cities with thick walls, using a technique called "battering" in which the walls lean slightly inwards for strength. Muhammad Tughluq built the Jahanpanah city, while Firuz Shah Tughluq built the Hauz-i-Khas, the Firuz Shah Kotla, and many gardens and canals.
The Mughals perfected the Indo-Islamic style of architecture, blending Persian, Indian, and Islamic elements. Akbar built the great palace complex at Fatehpur Sikri, which combines red sandstone buildings such as the Panch Mahal, the Buland Darwaza, and the Jodha Bai palace. Akbar also began the construction of the Red Fort at Agra.
Shah Jahan took Mughal architecture to its highest point. His buildings, made of white marble with pietra dura (inlaid semiprecious stones), include the Taj Mahal at Agra, the Red Fort and Jama Masjid in Delhi, and the beautiful palaces of the Shahjahanabad city. The Taj Mahal, built in memory of Mumtaz Mahal, is considered one of the most beautiful buildings in the world.
The great monuments were not built by the rulers alone. They were the work of thousands of skilled and unskilled labourers, masons, stone-cutters, carpenters, and painters. Inscriptions on temples and mosques record the names of some of these master craftsmen. For example, the inscription on the Brihadeshwara temple mentions the name of the master architect Kunjara Mallan Raja Raja Perunthachchan.
The workers were paid either in cash or in kind, and some were slaves. Building a great monument was a huge social undertaking that mobilised the resources of the entire kingdom. The rulers bore the cost because such buildings displayed their power, fulfilled their religious duties, and provided employment to thousands.
Rulers built for many reasons. Temples and mosques displayed their piety and gained them the blessing of priests and the devotion of the people. Palaces and forts displayed their wealth and protected them from enemies. The Mughals and the Rajputs built grand pleasure palaces and gardens that symbolised the order and harmony of their rule.
Building also created economic activity. The thousands of workers employed on a building site had to be fed, housed, and paid. Markets grew up around building projects, and cities expanded. Thus, architecture was not only an art form but also an economic and political activity at the heart of medieval Indian life.
| Monument | Place | Builder | Period |
|---|---|---|---|
| Brihadeshwara temple | Tanjavur | Rajaraja I | Chola |
| Qutb Minar | Delhi | Aibak and Iltutmish | Sultanate |
| Alai Darwaza | Delhi | Alauddin Khalji | Sultanate |
| Fatehpur Sikri | Near Agra | Akbar | Mughal |
| Taj Mahal | Agra | Shah Jahan | Mughal |
| Red Fort and Jama Masjid | Delhi | Shah Jahan | Mughal |
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Garbhagriha | Sanctum of a Hindu temple housing the main idol |
| Shikhara | Spire or tower above the sanctum |
| Mandapa | Hall for worshippers |
| Mihrab | Niche in the mosque wall pointing towards Mecca |
| Minaret | Tower of the mosque |
| Corbelled arch | Arch made of overlapping stones |
| True arch | Arch made of cut wedge-shaped stones, introduced with Islamic architecture |
The study of rulers and buildings reveals the deep connections between power, religion, and craftsmanship. From the wood and stone structures of ancient India to the great Chola temples, the domes and arches of the Delhi Sultans, and the marble splendour of the Mughals, Indian architecture evolved through constant innovation and cultural exchange. Every monument was the product of thousands of skilled workers and enormous resources, and every monument tells us something about the society that built it. When we visit a monument today, we are not just seeing a building; we are reading a chapter of history written in stone.