Between the eighth and the eighteenth centuries, the Indian subcontinent was covered with a dense network of towns and cities, each with its own special character. Some towns grew as centres of pilgrimage and religious activity, some as administrative capitals, some as markets for trade, and some as ports that connected India to the wider world. This chapter explores the life of these towns, the traders who did business in them, and the craftspersons who produced the goods that made them famous.
By studying towns, traders, and craftspersons, we learn that medieval India was not only a land of kings and peasants but also a land of bustling markets, skilled artisans, and long-distance trade that reached from Europe to Southeast Asia. Towns were the engines of this activity, and their fortunes rose and fell with trade, religion, and politics.
Many towns grew up as administrative centres. The capital cities of great kingdoms, such as Thanjavur (of the Cholas), Delhi and Agra (of the Sultans and Mughals), and Jaipur (of the Rajputs), were full of palaces, courts, offices, and the residences of nobles and officials. These towns depended on the presence of the ruler and his court, and they prospered when the ruler prospered.
Administrative towns also housed the armies and the officials who collected revenue. Markets supplied the needs of the court, and workshops produced luxury goods for the nobles. When the capital shifted, as it did under Muhammad Tughluq from Delhi to Daulatabad, the old town often declined, showing how closely towns were linked to political power.
Temples attracted pilgrims and traders, and many towns grew up around them. Thanjavur, Madurai, and Kanchipuram in the south, and Bhubaneswar in Odisha, were famous temple towns. The Chola temples, such as the Brihadeshwara temple, were centres of great economic activity, and temple festivals brought large numbers of pilgrims, who needed food, clothing, and shelter.
Pilgrimage centres also developed around rivers and mountains. Towns like Allahabad (Prayag), Varanasi (Banaras), and Tirupati grew because of their religious importance. The temples and monasteries of such places were major landowners, and they employed large numbers of priests, servants, musicians, and craftspersons. Many pilgrimage towns also became centres of learning and pilgrimage-based trade.
Some towns were famous for their craft production. These craft towns, such as Sonepur (in Bihar), Madurai (for textiles), and Dhaka (for muslin cloth), produced goods that were traded far and wide. The craftspersons who worked in these towns included weavers, metalworkers, stone carvers, potters, and dyers, organised into guilds (shrenis) that protected their interests.
Commercial towns, such as Masulipatnam, Surat, and Hooghly, developed on the coasts as ports of trade. These towns linked inland production with overseas markets. Merchants from Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Bengal traded with West Asia, East Africa, Southeast Asia, and later with the Europeans. The prosperity of these port towns attracted European trading companies, who eventually built their own settlements and factories.
Weaving was one of the most important crafts of the period. Fine muslins of Bengal and Dacca, cotton textiles of Gujarat, and silk of Bengal and Kashmir were famous throughout the world. The weavers worked either for local markets or for rich merchants who commissioned large quantities for export. Some weavers were bonded to particular merchants and could not sell to others, a form of dependence that was common in the craft economy.
Metalworkers produced a range of goods, from everyday utensils to exquisite jewellery and weapons. The brass, bronze, and copper wares of places like Moradabad and Bidar (famous for its bidri work) were highly valued. Goldsmiths and silversmiths worked for the courts and the wealthy, while iron workers produced tools and weapons for the peasantry and the armies.
Potters, tanners, dyers, painters, and stone carvers all contributed to the rich craft tradition of Indian towns. Some crafts were organised in the household, where entire families participated. The craftspersons were often organised into guilds called shrenis, which set standards, fixed prices, and represented the interests of their members before the state.
Indian merchants were among the most enterprising traders of the medieval world. The Gujarati merchants of Surat and Cambay, the Chettiar merchants of the Coromandel coast, and the Marwari merchants of Rajasthan traded over vast distances. They formed partnerships, pooled their resources, and built networks that spanned the Indian Ocean.
Some of the wealthiest merchants financed kings and nobles, and their credit was trusted across long distances. The traders used the monsoon winds to sail between India and the Arabian Peninsula and Southeast Asia. Hindu, Muslim, and later European traders all competed for control of the Indian Ocean trade, which brought gold, silver, spices, textiles, and horses into India.
The arrival of the Portuguese in 1498 under Vasco da Gama opened a new chapter in Indian trade. The Portuguese, followed by the Dutch, the English, and the French, established trading settlements on the coasts. The English East India Company set up its first factory in the south, and gradually extended its influence. The European companies brought spices, textiles, and other goods to Europe, and they competed fiercely for control of the trade routes.
Masulipatnam, on the Andhra coast, was a busy port in the seventeenth century, trading in textiles and spices. The Qutb Shahi kings of Golconda encouraged its trade, and the town attracted both Indian and European merchants. However, the arrival of the English and Dutch and their rivalry with the local rulers led to a decline in the town's fortunes.
Surat, on the Gujarat coast, was one of the richest and busiest ports of the Mughal period. It was called the "gateway to the west" because it was the port from which Indian pilgrims left for Mecca and through which Indian goods were exported to West Asia and Europe. The British, Dutch, and Portuguese all had factories at Surat. The fortunes of the town declined sharply in the late eighteenth century, when the British shifted their trading activities to Bombay.
Hampi, in Karnataka, was the capital of the Vijayanagara empire, and it was a town of extraordinary wealth and beauty. The city had markets filled with goods from all over the world, and its rulers patronised trade, art, and architecture. Hampi's prosperity declined after the empire was destroyed in 1565, and today its ruins tell us about the grandeur of that period. Hampi is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
| Type of Town | Function | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Administrative | Capital and court | Delhi, Agra, Jaipur, Thanjavur |
| Temple town | Religious centre and pilgrimage | Madurai, Kanchipuram, Bhubaneswar |
| Pilgrimage centre | Religious sites on rivers/mountains | Varanasi, Allahabad, Tirupati |
| Port town | Overseas trade | Surat, Masulipatnam, Hooghly |
| Craft town | Specialised production | Dhaka (muslin), Bidar (bidri work) |
| Trader Group | Region | Trade Area |
|---|---|---|
| Gujarati merchants | Surat, Cambay | West Asia, Europe |
| Chettiar merchants | Coromandel coast | Southeast Asia |
| Marwari merchants | Rajasthan | Across northern India |
| European companies | Coasts | Europe via sea routes |
The towns, traders, and craftspersons of medieval India created a world of remarkable energy and enterprise. Administrative capitals, temple towns, craft centres, and ports were linked together by networks of trade and religion that stretched across the Indian Ocean. Skilled weavers, metalworkers, and other artisans produced goods of superb quality, while merchants organised their production and sale over vast distances. The arrival of the Europeans from 1498 opened a new and eventually disruptive chapter in this world of trade. By studying these towns, we understand that commerce and craft were as important as kings and temples in shaping medieval Indian society.