Pastoralists are people who depend on animals for their livelihood. They move from one place to another with their herds of sheep, goats, cattle, camels, or yaks, in search of grazing land and water. This way of life is called pastoralism, and it has existed for thousands of years. In the modern world, however, pastoralists have faced serious challenges — colonial governments restricted their movements, settled them in fixed territories, and imposed taxes and restrictions that undermined their traditional livelihoods.
This chapter examines the lives of pastoralists in India and Africa, the impact of colonial rule on them, and how they have adapted and survived in the modern world. The story of pastoralists is important because it shows that there are many ways of living and earning a livelihood, and that the modern state has often been insensitive to the needs of nomadic and semi-nomadic communities.
In the mountains, pastoralists like the Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir and the Gaddis of Himachal Pradesh move between summer and winter pastures. In winter, the Gujjar Bakarwals move down to the low hills of Sivalik range in Jammu, and in summer, they move up with their goats and sheep to the higher meadows of the Himalayas. Similarly, the Gaddis move with their flocks of sheep and goats to the high meadows during summer.
On the plateaus, deserts, and plains of India, pastoralists such as the Dhangars of Maharashtra, the Gollas and Kurumas of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, and the Banjaras of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra are found. In the dry regions of Rajasthan, the Raikas moved with their herds of camel, sheep, and goats. The Dhangars of Maharashtra were dependent on dry grasslands, and the Kurumas and Gollas of the southern plateau depended on grazing.
The movement of pastoralists was not random. It was carefully calculated to match the seasonal availability of pastures, the needs of the crops, and the requirements of the herds. During the monsoon, the mountains have green pastures and the grasslands have fresh grass, so the pastoralists move to these regions. During the dry season, when grazing is poor, they move to the plains or riverbanks. Their movements were also shaped by the agricultural cycle, because their animals' manure improved the fertility of the soil.
The colonial government in India wanted to bring the pastoralists under control and settle them. The officials were worried that wandering people would be a threat to the settled population and would be difficult to govern. So, the colonial state passed the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871, which declared many communities of graziers and traders to be 'criminal tribes', forcing them to live in notified villages and subjecting them to constant surveillance.
The colonial government introduced a grazing tax in the mid-nineteenth century, which the pastoralists had to pay for every animal they grazed. Passes were introduced to regulate their movement, and those without passes could not graze animals or take them across the borders. The colonial state also surveyed the grazing lands, converted wasteland into cultivated farms, and took over the grazing tracts and made them 'reserved' or 'protected'. The 'wasteland rules' allowed the colonial state to take over all uncultivated lands, and this seriously reduced the grazing lands available to pastoralists.
The Forest Acts of 1865 and 1878 allowed the colonial state to declare forests as 'reserved' or 'protected', restricting the movement of pastoralists. Pastoralists could no longer use these forests for grazing, and the colonial state imposed restrictions on the entry of pastoralists into forests. This reduced the availability of grazing land and forced pastoralists to reduce their herds or change their way of life.
When grazing lands shrank, many pastoralists reduced the size of their herds and began to look for new pastures. Some changed their movement patterns, and others combined pastoralism with agriculture. Some pastoralists who had surplus animals sold them, and some became agricultural labourers or took up other work. The colonial rules changed the lives of pastoralists profoundly, but the pastoralists also adapted to the new situation.
Pastoralists used many strategies to survive. They made maximum use of the monsoon period, moved to areas where cultivation was not possible, and used the agricultural cycle to their advantage by grazing their animals on the harvested fields where crop stubble was available. Some pastoralists also became involved in trade, and in the twentieth century, they continued to adapt to changing conditions.
In Africa, the Maasai pastoralists of East Africa depended on the grasslands of the highlands. The colonial powers divided the Maasai lands between British Kenya and German Tanganyika in 1885, and later into separate 'reserves' for the Maasai. The best grazing lands were taken over by white settlers for their farms and plantations, and the Maasai were pushed into a small area.
In the modern world, the Maasai have faced problems of sustenance. They were forced to survive on less land and fewer animals, and many were displaced. The colonial rulers also introduced taxes on grazing, and the Maasai had to pay taxes. The expansion of agriculture and the growth of tourism have further affected their pastoral lands, as national parks and wildlife reserves have been created, restricting their movement.
The wars of the twentieth century, including the two World Wars, devastated pastoral economies in Africa. Droughts, famines, and epidemics also took a heavy toll on pastoral communities. The growth of the market economy connected pastoralists to urban markets, but it also made them more dependent on external factors.
In spite of all the pressures, pastoralists have survived and continue to adapt. In India, pastoralists now breed animals, sell their milk and wool, and participate in the market economy. Many have settled near towns and cities, but the traditional knowledge and skills of pastoralists remain valuable. The Gujjar Bakarwals, the Raikas, and other pastoral groups continue to move with their herds, though their movements are now more restricted.
Pastoralism is not just a way of earning a living; it is a way of managing the environment. Pastoralists use common property resources in a sustainable way, and their animals help in maintaining soil fertility and biodiversity. Modern research shows that the seasonal movement of pastoralists is a rational and ecologically sound strategy, and that their knowledge of animals, plants, and the environment is valuable for sustainable development.
| Community | Region | Animals |
|---|---|---|
| Gujjar Bakarwals | Jammu and Kashmir | Goats, sheep |
| Gaddis | Himachal Pradesh | Sheep, goats |
| Dhangars | Maharashtra | Sheep, cattle |
| Gollas and Kurumas | Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh | Cattle |
| Raikas | Rajasthan | Camels, sheep, goats |
| Banjaras | Punjab, Rajasthan, etc. | Cattle, camels |
| Measure | Year/Period | Impact |
|---|---|---|
| Criminal Tribes Act | 1871 | Declared grazier communities as 'criminal tribes' |
| Grazing tax | Mid-nineteenth century | Tax on every animal grazed |
| Passes system | Mid-nineteenth century | Regulation of movement |
| Wasteland rules | Colonial period | State took over uncultivated lands |
| Forest Acts | 1865, 1878 | Reserved and protected forests; grazing banned |
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Pastoralists | People who move with their herds for grazing |
| Transhumance | Seasonal movement of people with their livestock |
| Criminal Tribes Act | Act declaring certain communities as 'criminal tribes' |
| Grazing tax | Tax paid on animals for grazing |
| Common property resources | Resources owned collectively by a community |
Pastoralists in the modern world have faced enormous pressures — from colonial laws that restricted their movement and taxed their herds, to modern states that have taken over their grazing lands for agriculture, industry, and wildlife parks. In India, communities like the Gujjar Bakarwals, Dhangars, and Raikas adapted by reducing herds, changing movement patterns, and combining pastoralism with agriculture and trade. In Africa, the Maasai were pushed into small reserves and suffered greatly under colonial rule and wars. Yet pastoralism has survived because it is a rational, flexible, and ecologically sound way of life that manages common resources sustainably. The chapter reminds us that development must respect the diversity of livelihoods, and that the knowledge of pastoral communities is a valuable resource for building a sustainable future.