This chapter studies the Vijayanagara empire, one of the most powerful and splendid states of medieval south India, whose capital was at Hampi on the banks of the Tungabhadra river in present-day Karnataka. Founded in the mid-fourteenth century, the empire lasted until 1565, when it was decisively defeated by the combined armies of the Deccan Sultanates at the Battle of Talikota (also called Rakshasi-Tangadi). The chapter focuses on the capital city itself, treating it as a "source of history" whose fortifications, temples, bazaars and waterworks reveal the political, religious and economic life of the empire.
The city of Vijayanagara was described by contemporaries as one of the most beautiful in the world. The Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes, who visited it in the 1520s during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya, compared it with Rome and called it "the best provided city in the world." This chapter uses the accounts of such travellers, together with the extensive archaeological remains and inscriptions at Hampi, to reconstruct the city's history and to understand how the rulers projected their power through the built environment.
The Vijayanagara empire was founded in 1336 by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, who were in the service of the Kakatiya rulers of Warangal before establishing their own kingdom. The empire was named after the city of Vijayanagara ("city of victory"), which they built on the south bank of the Tungabhadra. The capital was later shifted by Krishnadeva Raya (reigned 1509-1529) to a new suburb south of the original city, which he called Nagalapuram in honour of his mother Nagala.
The empire expanded under its four dynasties: the Sangama, the Saluva, the Tuluva and the Aravidu. Under the Tuluva ruler Krishnadeva Raya, the empire reached the height of its power, extending across most of the peninsula south of the Krishna river. The empire fought prolonged wars with the Bahmani Sultanate and its successors, the Deccan Sultanates, for control of the fertile Raichur doab and the rich coastal and temple territories. These conflicts culminated in the disaster of 1565.
The site of Hampi was well chosen for defence and display. It lies in a striking landscape of boulder-strewn hills, backed by the Tungabhadra river, which flows from west to east past the city. The sacred character of the site was ancient: local traditions and inscriptions associate it with the mythical Kishkindha of the Ramayana, where the monkey king Vali ruled and Hanuman was born. The hills and rocks made natural fortifications, and the river provided water for the city's many tanks and canals.
The historical city covered a vast area, roughly from the Virupaksha temple in the north, dedicated to Shiva and associated with the founding legends, to the "sacred centre" around the Krishna temple and the "royal centre" around the palace complex. The two-centre pattern of the capital is one of the most distinctive features: the sacred centre housed the principal temples, while the royal centre contained the king's residences, audience halls, stables and the mahanavami platform.
One of the most remarkable achievements of the Vijayanagara engineers was the water system. A large embankment known as the Kamalapuram tank was built to supply water to the city. Channels cut from the Tungabhadra brought water to a series of wells, tanks and conduits, some of which survive today. The waterworks served the palaces, the gardens and the irrigated fields around the city, and the remains of a large stone aqueduct can still be seen.
The construction of tanks and channels, and the careful management of water, were vital to the city's survival and to the prosperity of the surrounding countryside. The success of the Vijayanagara state depended heavily on its ability to control water resources and to organise irrigation, and the empire's rulers proudly recorded their construction of tanks in inscriptions. The water system is also an example of how the built environment of the capital reflects the practical and administrative concerns of the state.
The fortifications of Vijayanagara were formidable. The city was surrounded by multiple lines of walls, built of massive stone blocks, that followed the natural contours of the hills. The fortifications were broken by many gateways (dwaras) and bastions, with access to the city controlled through these gates. The outermost walls enclosed an area of several hundred square kilometres, protecting not only the city but also the cultivated lands and pastures around it.
The remains show that the fortifications were improved and strengthened over time, with towers and watch posts added. The fortifications were part of the broader defensive scheme that included the natural barriers of the hills and the river. Domingo Paes noted the strength of the defences, describing the city as ringed by walls "that cannot be entered except through certain gates." The fortifications were not merely military; they were also a symbol of royal power, marking the boundary between the ordered city and the outside world.
The royal centre of Vijayanagara, located in the south-west of the capital, contained the structures associated with the king. These included the audience hall of the king, the great hall known as the "house of victory" or the mahanavami platform, the "palace of the queen" (Zenana enclosure), and the "elephant stables," an imposing range of domed structures with niches for the royal elephants. The "Lotus Mahal" with its elegant arches is another striking structure of the royal centre.
The mahanavami platform, a massive stepped structure, was the focus of the annual nine-day festival of Mahanavami (Dussehra), when the king held grand ceremonies, displayed his wealth, and received tribute from nobles and subordinate chiefs. Domingo Paes has left a vivid description of these festivities, describing how the king, seated on a throne, watched the processions of elephants, horses and soldiers, and the performances of dancers and wrestlers. The festival was a political as much as a religious occasion, reaffirming the king's authority and magnificence.
The sacred centre of Vijayanagara clustered around the Virupaksha temple, dedicated to Shiva, and the other major temples such as the Krishna temple, the Vitthala temple and the Hazara Rama temple. The Virupaksha temple was the most important shrine, closely associated with the founding legends of the empire and with the worship of the royal family. The Vitthala temple, dedicated to the god Vitthala, is celebrated for its stone chariot and its elaborately carved pillars.
The Hazara Rama temple, whose walls are covered with panels depicting scenes from the Ramayana, was probably used by the royal family for private worship. The temples were also economic centres, holding land, employing priests, and receiving gifts from the kings and nobles. The close connection between the temples and the court is a distinctive feature of Vijayanagara, where religion and kingship were inseparable, and where the king presented himself as the protector and patron of the gods.
The rulers of Vijayanagara projected their power through both ceremony and art. They claimed the title of "lord of the great gate" (Mahamandalesvara) and performed rituals such as the mahanavami festival and the celebration of the king's "transformation" into a god during the festival. The sculptures at Hampi, like those on the mahanavami platform and the Hazara Rama temple, show the king in royal and divine roles, surrounded by attendants, horses and elephants.
The discovery at Hampi of a statue of a horse and of reliefs showing a mounted king or deity with a sword has led to debates among historians about the rituals of kingship. Scholars such as Anila Verghese and others have studied the festival reliefs to argue that the festival of Mahanavami, described in such detail by Paes, was a powerful means of legitimising royal authority and binding together the empire's diverse population. Ritual, architecture and art thus worked together to create the image of a divinely sanctioned empire.
The glory of Vijayanagara came to an abrupt end in 1565. At the Battle of Talikota (also known as Rakshasi-Tangadi), the combined forces of the Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda and Bidar decisively defeated the Vijayanagara army. The capital city was sacked, plundered and largely abandoned, and the empire disintegrated into a number of successor states. The magnificent city, once praised as the most beautiful in the world, fell into ruins and was gradually overgrown by the jungle.
For historians, the deserted city became a spectacular archaeological site. It was first brought to scholarly attention by the British antiquarian Colin Mackenzie in 1800, who used the account of a local Brahmana to identify the site. The Society for the Protection of Hampi Monuments was later formed, and in 1986 the site of Hampi was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. The study of Hampi today combines archaeology, epigraphy, art history and the accounts of travellers to reconstruct the life of the imperial capital.
The chapter also reflects on the contemporary condition of Hampi. While the site attracts millions of tourists and pilgrims, the region also faces tensions between conservation, local livelihoods and development. Some structures have been damaged by the growth of the neighbouring town of Hampi, and the Kottappanabele remains have been threatened. These conflicts raise difficult questions about how heritage should be preserved and who should benefit from it.
For the student, Hampi is a reminder that the remains of the past are not inert ruins but living places that continue to be valued, used and contested. The chapter presents the site as a palimpsest: layers of history, from the mythical Kishkindha and the medieval capital to the modern World Heritage Site, all inscribed on the same landscape. Studying Vijayanagara thus involves not only understanding a medieval empire but also reflecting on the modern uses and meanings of the past.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Founders | Harihara and Bukka (1336) |
| Dynasties | Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, Aravidu |
| Greatest ruler | Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1529) |
| River and location | Tungabhadra, Karnataka |
| End of empire | Battle of Talikota / Rakshasi-Tangadi, 1565 |
| Key contemporary source | Domingo Paes (1520s) |
| Centre / Feature | Structures and Significance |
|---|---|
| Royal centre | Mahanavami platform, Zenana enclosure, elephant stables, Lotus Mahal |
| Sacred centre | Virupaksha temple, Krishna temple, Vitthala temple, Hazara Rama temple |
| Water system | Kamalapuram tank, channels from Tungabhadra, aqueducts |
| Fortifications | Multiple walls of stone, gateways, bastions following the hills |
| Aftermath | Sacked 1565; identified by Colin Mackenzie 1800; UNESCO World Heritage 1986 |
The imperial capital of Vijayanagara at Hampi was a city of astonishing scale, beauty and organisation, uniting the sacred world of its temples with the political world of its royal centre. Its founders and rulers projected power through festivals, fortifications, waterworks and sculpture, and contemporary travellers like Domingo Paes preserved a glimpse of its splendour. The empire's sudden fall in 1565 left the city to crumble, but also preserved it as one of the world's great archaeological treasures. Today Hampi is both a World Heritage Site and a living landscape of contested memory, reminding us that imperial capitals are never simply ruins: they are monuments in which past power, present communities and modern tourism all leave their mark.