The environment and natural resources have become central issues in contemporary world politics. The rapid growth of the world economy, population and consumption has placed enormous pressure on the earth's natural resources, such as water, forests, minerals, energy and fertile land. Environmental degradation, climate change, pollution and the unequal distribution of resources have become sources of conflict within and between states. Environmental issues are no longer seen as purely local or technical matters; they are now recognised as matters of global politics, involving questions of justice, development and survival.
The study of environment and natural resources in world politics raises several important questions. Who owns the world's resources? How should they be used and for whose benefit? How can economic development be combined with environmental protection? How can the burden of environmental damage be shared fairly between the rich and the poor countries? This chapter examines the nature of environmental politics, the key environmental issues facing the world, the responses of the international community, and the concept of sustainable development.
Environmental issues became a major subject of international politics in the late twentieth century. Growing scientific evidence of pollution, resource depletion, ozone depletion and climate change forced governments to pay attention to the environment. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972, was the first major international conference on the environment. It was followed by the Rio Earth Summit of 1992 and many other international agreements and conferences.
The environment is a political issue because its use and protection involve conflicting interests. Different countries have different levels of responsibility for environmental damage and different capacities to deal with it. The developed countries, which have caused most of the historical pollution and emissions, demand that developing countries also reduce their emissions. The developing countries, which need to grow to reduce poverty, argue that the rich countries must bear the main responsibility and provide finance and technology. These differences are at the heart of international environmental politics.
Some environmental resources are shared by the whole of humanity and cannot be owned by any single state. These are called the global commons. Examples include the atmosphere, the oceans beyond national jurisdiction, the polar regions and outer space. The use of the global commons, such as the atmosphere for dumping greenhouse gases or the high seas for fishing, raises questions of justice, since overuse by some can harm the environment for all.
Climate change is the most serious environmental issue facing the world. It is caused by the emission of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, from the burning of fossil fuels. The warming of the earth's climate leads to rising sea levels, more extreme weather events, changes in rainfall patterns, and threats to agriculture, water and human settlements. Climate change affects the poorest countries most severely, even though they have contributed least to the problem.
Air, water and soil pollution are major environmental problems in both developed and developing countries. Industrialisation, urbanisation and the use of chemicals have polluted the air and water, harming human health and ecosystems. In the 1980s, scientists discovered that the ozone layer, which protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation, was being depleted by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The Montreal Protocol of 1987 was signed to phase out ozone-depleting substances, and it has been one of the most successful international environmental agreements.
The clearing of forests for agriculture, industry and settlement has led to widespread deforestation, especially in tropical regions. Forests are important because they absorb carbon dioxide, provide habitat for wildlife and support the livelihoods of millions of people. Deforestation and environmental change have caused the loss of biodiversity, the variety of life on earth. The loss of species and habitats is a permanent and irreversible loss for humanity.
Fresh water is becoming increasingly scarce in many parts of the world. The demand for water for agriculture, industry and cities is growing, while climate change is reducing water availability in many regions. Water scarcity can become a source of conflict, especially in river basins shared by several countries, such as the Indus basin shared by India and Pakistan. Energy is another critical resource. The world's dependence on fossil fuels contributes to climate change, and the transition to renewable energy is one of the greatest challenges of the twenty-first century.
The international community has responded to environmental problems through conferences and agreements. The Stockholm Conference of 1972 was followed by the Rio Earth Summit of 1992, which adopted the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Agenda 21 action plan. The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 set binding emission reduction targets for developed countries. The Paris Agreement of 2015, which was ratified by almost all countries including India, committed the world to limiting global warming to well below two degrees Celsius.
A key principle in international environmental law is the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. This principle recognises that although all states share the common responsibility of protecting the environment, they have different levels of responsibility and different capacities to act. The developed countries, which have contributed most to historical emissions and have greater resources, are expected to do more and to help developing countries. This principle is at the heart of the climate change negotiations.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) coordinates environmental work within the UN. Environmental issues are also addressed by the Commission on Sustainable Development and many other bodies. Non-governmental organisations, such as Greenpeace and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), play an important role in raising awareness, lobbying governments and monitoring compliance with environmental agreements. Environmental movements and activists have made the environment a central issue in both domestic and international politics.
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This idea was popularised by the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland, in 1987. Sustainable development requires a balance between economic growth, environmental protection and social justice.
India faces the challenge of combining economic development with environmental protection. India needs rapid growth to reduce poverty and improve the lives of its people, but it must also protect its environment, which is under pressure from population growth, urbanisation and industrialisation. India has adopted a National Action Plan on Climate Change, which includes missions on solar energy, energy efficiency, water, agriculture and sustainable habitats. India has also committed to ambitious targets for renewable energy and the reduction of carbon intensity.
Sustainable development requires a change in the way we think about growth and progress. It requires the efficient use of resources, the transition to clean energy, the protection of forests and biodiversity, and a fairer distribution of the costs and benefits of development. It also requires cooperation between rich and poor countries, with the developed countries providing finance and technology to help developing countries grow sustainably. The future of the planet depends on whether humanity can achieve sustainable development.
| Year | Conference/Agreement | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| 1972 | Stockholm Conference | First major UN conference on environment |
| 1987 | Montreal Protocol | Phased out ozone-depleting substances |
| 1992 | Rio Earth Summit | UNFCCC, biodiversity convention, Agenda 21 |
| 1997 | Kyoto Protocol | Binding emission targets for developed countries |
| 2015 | Paris Agreement | Limit global warming to below 2 degrees Celsius |
| Issue | Cause | Effect |
|---|---|---|
| Climate change | Greenhouse gas emissions | Rising seas, extreme weather |
| Ozone depletion | CFCs | Harmful ultraviolet radiation |
| Deforestation | Clearing of forests | Loss of biodiversity and livelihoods |
| Water scarcity | Growing demand, climate change | Threats to agriculture and conflict |
| Pollution | Industrialisation, urbanisation | Harm to health and ecosystems |
| Pillar | Focus |
|---|---|
| Economic | Growth and livelihoods |
| Environmental | Protection of ecosystems and resources |
| Social | Justice and equity among and within generations |
The environment and natural resources have become central issues in contemporary world politics. The growth of the world economy, population and consumption has placed unprecedented pressure on the earth's resources, causing climate change, pollution, deforestation, loss of biodiversity and water scarcity. These issues are intensely political because they involve conflicting interests between the rich and the poor countries, and because the use of the global commons raises questions of justice. The international community has responded through conferences and agreements, from Stockholm in 1972 to the Paris Agreement of 2015, based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. Sustainable development, as popularised by the Brundtland Report of 1987, offers a way forward by balancing economic growth, environmental protection and social justice. For India, the challenge is to achieve rapid development while protecting its environment and addressing the needs of its people. The future of the planet depends on the ability of humanity to cooperate in protecting the environment and managing resources sustainably.