India's external relations have been shaped by its geography, its history, its size and its values. As a large country at the crossroads of Asia, India has always had to engage with the wider world. After independence, India adopted a foreign policy based on the principles of peace, non-alignment, anti-colonialism and the promotion of a just world order. The foundations of this policy were laid by Jawaharlal Nehru, who served as the first Prime Minister and as India's first Minister of External Affairs. India's foreign policy has combined idealism with realism, and it has evolved over time in response to changes in the world.
India's external relations can be understood through several relationships and principles. India's policy of non-alignment kept it out of the Cold War blocs. Its relations with the USA and the Soviet Union defined its position in the Cold War. Its relations with China were shaped by the border dispute and the war of 1962. India also played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement and in the struggle for decolonisation. India's relations with its neighbours, the nuclear question, and India's role in world politics are also central to its external relations.
Nehru laid down the principles of India's foreign policy: the promotion of world peace, the maintenance of the independence and sovereignty of India, anti-colonialism and anti-racism, peaceful coexistence and the settlement of disputes through peaceful means, and support for the United Nations. These principles were rooted in India's history of struggle against colonialism and in the values of the Indian freedom movement.
The principle of peaceful coexistence was given concrete expression in the Panchsheel, or five principles, which were first formalised in the Sino-Indian Agreement of 1954 regarding Tibet. The five principles are: mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. Panchsheel became the basis of India's relations with many countries, especially in Asia.
Non-alignment was the most distinctive feature of India's foreign policy. India refused to join either of the two Cold War blocs and instead pursued an independent foreign policy. Non-alignment did not mean neutrality or isolation; it meant that India would judge each issue on its merits and would work to reduce Cold War tensions and to promote the interests of the developing world. India used the Non-Aligned Movement, founded in 1961, to champion the cause of peace, decolonisation and development.
India's relations with the USA during the Cold War were complex. The USA was often critical of India's policy of non-alignment, which it saw as leaning towards the Soviet Union. India and the USA differed on issues such as the Korean War, the Kashmir dispute and American military aid to Pakistan. However, the two countries also cooperated in areas such as food aid, technology and education. Relations were strained at times but never completely broken.
India's relations with the Soviet Union were close and friendly. The Soviet Union supported India on several important issues, including India's position on Kashmir and its claims to Goa. The Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation was signed between India and the Soviet Union in August 1971, just before the war with Pakistan that led to the creation of Bangladesh. Soviet support was important for India during this period, and the two countries cooperated in defence, trade and technology.
India sought to maintain its independence by balancing its relations with the two superpowers. It refused to join either bloc and maintained the freedom to cooperate with both. This policy was not always easy, and India often came under pressure from both the USA and the USSR. Nevertheless, India's policy of maintaining strategic autonomy served it well during the Cold War, allowing it to pursue its national interests without being tied to either superpower.
India and China have a long history of interaction, but their modern relationship as nation states began in 1950, when India became the second country in the world to recognise the People's Republic of China. The two countries cooperated on the Panchsheel principles and on Asian solidarity. India hosted the Asian Relations Conference and supported China's claims. Relations were friendly for much of the early 1950s.
The relationship deteriorated over the border dispute. China and India had conflicting claims over large stretches of their border, including Aksai Chin in the west and Arunachal Pradesh in the east. Attempts to resolve the dispute through negotiations failed, and in October 1962, China attacked India in a brief but devastating war. The war was a major shock to India, which had hoped that the friendship between the two countries would prevent conflict. The war ended the idealistic phase of India's China policy and forced India to reassess its foreign policy and defence preparedness.
After 1962, India and China remained suspicious of each other for decades. Relations were restored gradually, and in 1976 the two countries exchanged ambassadors. Since the 1980s, India and China have improved their relations through dialogue on the border issue, trade and cooperation on issues like climate change. However, the border dispute remains unresolved, and periodic tensions continue, as seen in the clashes of 2020 in the Ladakh region. India's policy towards China combines engagement with vigilance.
India's nuclear programme has two aspects: the peaceful use of nuclear energy for development, and the development of nuclear weapons for security. India began its nuclear programme soon after independence, under the leadership of Homi Bhabha. India conducted its first nuclear test in May 1974, described as a peaceful nuclear explosion. India conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998, establishing itself as a nuclear weapon state.
India's nuclear policy is based on the principles of minimum deterrence and no first use. India has declared that it will not use nuclear weapons first and that it maintains a credible minimum deterrent. India has also maintained a policy of not targeting civilian populations and has emphasised its support for complete nuclear disarmament. India's nuclear doctrine reflects its commitment to both security and the ultimate goal of a nuclear-weapon-free world.
India's nuclear policy has been debated both within India and abroad. Supporters argue that nuclear weapons are necessary for India's security, given the nuclear capability of China and Pakistan and India's unresolved border disputes. Critics argue that nuclear weapons divert resources from development, increase regional tensions, and weaken India's moral authority on disarmament. India has refused to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), arguing that it is discriminatory, while maintaining its own commitment to non-proliferation and disarmament.
India's relations with its neighbours have been a central part of its foreign policy. India has sought good relations with Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives and Afghanistan, providing aid, trade and technical assistance. India's relations with Pakistan have been the most difficult, marked by the Kashmir dispute, wars and periods of tension. India has also had to manage its relations with China, which borders India in the north.
India's policy in South Asia has combined the promotion of good neighbourhoodliness with the assertion of its own security interests. India has provided substantial economic assistance to its neighbours and has sought to build regional cooperation through SAARC. At the same time, India has insisted on respect for its security concerns, for example in its relations with Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. India's relations with its neighbours are shaped by a complex mix of geography, culture, economics and security.
Beyond its neighbourhood, India has played an increasing role in world politics. India is a member of the UN, the Commonwealth, the Non-Aligned Movement, the G20, the BRICS group and many other organisations. India has contributed to UN peacekeeping operations, has sought reform of the UN Security Council and has built partnerships with the USA, Japan, Australia and the countries of Europe and Southeast Asia. India's growing economy and military strength have made it an increasingly important power in the world.
| Principle | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Peace | Promotion of world peace |
| Non-alignment | Not joining either Cold War bloc |
| Anti-colonialism | Support for decolonisation |
| Peaceful coexistence | Panchsheel principles |
| UN support | Support for the United Nations |
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1950 | India recognised People's Republic of China |
| 1954 | Panchsheel agreement on Tibet |
| 1962 | India-China border war |
| 1971 | Indo-Soviet Treaty; Bangladesh war |
| 1974 | First nuclear test |
| 1998 | Pokhran-II nuclear tests |
| Principle | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Minimum deterrence | Credible minimum nuclear force |
| No first use | Will not use nuclear weapons first |
| No civilian targeting | Does not target civilian populations |
| Disarmament | Supports complete nuclear disarmament |
India's external relations have been guided by the principles laid down by Nehru: peace, non-alignment, anti-colonialism and peaceful coexistence. India refused to join either Cold War bloc and maintained its strategic autonomy, cooperating with both the USA and the Soviet Union while remaining free of both. India's relations with China, shaped by the border dispute and the war of 1962, have moved from idealism to pragmatism. India's nuclear policy, based on minimum deterrence and no first use, reflects its security needs and its commitment to disarmament. India has also built relations with its neighbours and with the wider world, playing an increasing role in global affairs. From non-alignment to strategic autonomy, India's foreign policy has shown remarkable continuity in its core values and remarkable adaptability in its methods, as India has grown into an important power in the world.