In earlier chapters, we saw how cities first grew and how empires like the Mauryan empire were ruled. Around this time, villages and towns were also growing and becoming more important. The villages produced food, and the towns produced crafts and goods. Trade between villages, towns and distant lands made both villages and towns "vital" and "thriving".
This chapter tells us about the life of farmers, the use of iron tools, the growth of crafts, the rise of trade and towns, and the special towns of Mathura and Arikamedu. We will also learn about the guilds (shrenis) of craftspersons and the coins that were used in trade.
During the later Vedic period and after, the use of iron tools became widespread. Iron implements such as ploughshares and axes made it possible to clear forests and plough hard, heavy soil. This increased the area under cultivation and the amount of food produced.
The sangam poems of the Tamil region and other sources mention the use of iron tools. Better tools meant more food, and more food meant that some people could take up other occupations like pottery, weaving and metalwork. This division of labour made villages self-sufficient and gave rise to towns where these crafts flourished.
In ancient times, most people lived in villages and earned their living by farming. The village had farmers, herders, craftspersons and other workers, each with their own role.
Farmers worked in the fields and paid taxes. Herders looked after cattle and other animals. The grama bhojaka was the village headman, who collected taxes, supervised irrigation, and settled small disputes. He was often the biggest landowner. Other important village officials were the senapati (army commander) and the rajas (chiefs) of small regions.
The grama bhojaka (also called the gramini or bhojaka) was a very important person in the village. He had several duties: - He collected taxes from the farmers for the king. - He supervised the digging and maintenance of canals and wells for irrigation. - He settled disputes among the villagers. - He was usually the largest landowner in the village.
The grama bhojaka shows that even in villages there was a system of administration, with officials responsible to the ruler. This helped the king to control the villages and collect revenue.
As agriculture produced surplus food, towns grew where craftspeople and traders lived. The towns were centres of craft production. Craftspersons made many things: - Pottery, especially the famous Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), which had a shiny black surface. - Iron tools, weapons and ornaments. - Textiles made of cotton and silk. - Beads and ornaments of gold, silver and precious stones.
The craftspersons of a town often grouped themselves into organisations called shrenis or guilds. The shreni of a craft was very powerful; it fixed rules for work, punished those who broke the rules, and even acted as a bank where people could deposit their money.
Trade flourished between villages, towns and distant lands. Goods were carried by bullock carts, camels and boats on rivers, and by ships on the sea. The growth of trade led to the use of coins.
Coins were first used as punch-marked silver coins, which had symbols pressed into them. Later, gold coins came into use. The presence of coins shows that trade was well organised and that there was a system of money. Historians also learn from coins about the rulers, their titles and the state of the economy.
Mathura was an important town in the Ganga valley and became a major city. It was important for several reasons: - It was a religious centre where many temples were built. - It was a centre of trade and a crossroads for different routes. - It was a centre of craft production, where cloth, flowers and other goods were made. - It was the capital of a kingdom and later became the capital of the Kushanas. - Both Jainism and Buddhism flourished here, and many sculptures were made.
The inscriptions found at Mathura tell us about its people, including craftspersons, washermen, and even a goldsmith who made earrings.
Arikamedu, in present-day Pondicherry (Puducherry) in Tamil Nadu, was a coastal settlement on the banks of a river. It was a port, where ships from distant lands unloaded their goods and loaded Indian goods.
Archaeologists have found at Arikamedu: - A brick structure that was perhaps a warehouse. - Beads, pottery and terracotta objects made locally. - A large number of Roman lamps, Roman glassware and Roman amphorae (tall jars for storing wine).
These finds show that Arikamedu was in contact with the Roman world and that trade was carried on with distant lands across the sea.
Around 2000 years ago, India traded actively with the Roman world. Roman ships sailed across the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean to ports like Arikamedu.
From India, goods like pepper, spices, muslin (fine cotton cloth), ivory, beads, gold and precious stones were exported. In return, India imported wine, glassware and other goods from Rome. The discovery of Roman coins in many parts of India proves that this trade was carried on for a long time. This trade made the towns along the coasts rich and prosperous.
Besides the towns already described, many other goods were produced in villages and towns: - Silk textiles were produced, and silk was carried along the silk route to distant lands. - Salt was an important item produced along the coasts, especially in Gujarat, and was traded. - Cotton textiles and dyed cloth were popular. - Spices like pepper and cardamom were grown in the south and exported.
These goods show that ancient India had a rich and varied economy, with both local and long-distance trade.
| Town | Present Location | Why It Was Important |
|---|---|---|
| Mathura | Uttar Pradesh | Religious centre, trade, craft production, Kushana capital |
| Arikamedu | Tamil Nadu (Puducherry) | Port town, trade with Rome |
| Pataliputra | Bihar (Patna) | Capital of the Mauryan empire |
| From India (Exports) | From Other Lands (Imports) |
|---|---|
| Pepper and spices | Wine |
| Muslin and silk | Glassware |
| Ivory, beads, gold | Roman lamps |
| Precious stones | Amphorae (jars for wine) |
The villages and towns of ancient India were vital and thriving. Iron tools increased agricultural production, making villages self-sufficient and supporting towns where craftspeople lived. The grama bhojaka managed the villages, while the shrenis of craftspersons organised production and trade.
Trade grew both within India and with distant lands. Mathura flourished as a religious and craft centre, while Arikamedu was a busy port trading with the Roman world. Coins, shrenis and inscriptions all tell us about the rich economic life of this period. The thriving towns and vital villages of ancient India show that the economy of the subcontinent was well developed and closely connected with the wider world.