The Making of Regional Cultures — Study Notes

1. Introduction

India is a land of great regional diversity, and one of the most fascinating questions in history is how these distinct regional cultures came into being. This chapter explores the making of regional cultures - the languages, literature, art, architecture, and traditions that grew in different parts of the subcontinent. It shows that regional cultures were not simply ancient inheritances but were actively created and shaped by history.

The chapter argues that regional cultures were often built around religious traditions, royal patronage, and the growth of regional languages. A region could become culturally unified when a particular language, literature, or religious tradition was linked to a particular area, often under the patronage of a regional kingdom. The histories of Bengal, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and the areas around Kalinga (Odisha) are used to illustrate this process.

2. The Concept of a Region and Regional Culture

A "region" is not a fixed or natural unit; it is a concept that changes with history and with the people who define it. A region may be defined by language, by shared traditions, by political boundaries, or by geography. Regional culture grows when the inhabitants of a region begin to share a common identity, language, and set of customs.

Regional cultures are often shaped by religion. When a religious tradition becomes closely linked to a particular region, it gives the region a distinct cultural identity. The bhakti and sufi movements, for example, contributed to the growth of regional identities by composing devotional literature in regional languages. Similarly, royal patronage of particular languages and temples strengthened regional cultures.

3. The Cheras and the Development of Malayalam

The Malayalam language provides a wonderful example of how a regional culture was made. In ancient times, the people of the Kerala region used Old Tamil in their inscriptions. However, between the ninth and the thirteenth centuries, Malayalam developed as a separate language, drawing on Tamil and Sanskrit influences, especially through the works of the poet-saints.

The Chera kingdom of the ninth and tenth centuries patronised the growth of Malayalam. Literary works in Malayalam developed under the influence of Sanskrit and Tamil traditions. By the fourteenth century, Malayalam had developed its own distinct script and literary tradition, showing how a regional language was created through the interaction of different cultural influences.

4. The Rajputs and the Culture of Rajasthan

The culture of Rajasthan was shaped largely by the Rajputs, who rose to prominence from about the eighth century. The Rajputs were warriors who claimed descent from heroic ancestors, and they developed a distinctive culture of honour, bravery, and courtly love. Their legends of bravery and sacrifice were sung in ballads and preserved in the literature of Rajasthan.

The Rajput courts patronised painting, music, and literature in the Rajasthani language. The most famous cultural product of Rajasthan is the development of the heroic literature of the Rajputs, which celebrated the deeds of warriors. The Rajput traditions of the warrior and the importance of honour became central to the regional culture of Rajasthan.

5. The Growth of Regional Languages: The Example of Bengali

The Making of Bengali Literature

The Bengali language and literature were created gradually through the contributions of many groups. The earliest Bengali literature developed between the fourteenth and the seventeenth centuries, influenced by the regional kingdoms of Bengal. The Hindu devotional traditions and the growth of the bhakti movement contributed to the creation of Bengali literature.

One of the most important early works of Bengali literature is the Mangalakavyas, devotional poems in honour of the goddesses, especially the goddess Manasa. These poems combined religious themes with everyday social life. The bhakti saint Chaitanya (1486-1533) and his followers contributed greatly to the growth of Bengali literature with their devotional songs and verses.

The Bengal Sultanate

The rulers of the Bengal Sultanate also played an important role in the growth of regional culture. They were great patrons of Bengali literature, and it was during their period that translations of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were made into Bengali. Some Sultans also patronised Bengali literature even while they ruled as Muslims, showing that regional culture could grow independent of religion.

6. The Story of the Nath Panthis, Yogis and Sufis

Not all Bengali literature was religious in the narrow sense. The Nath yogis and the Sufis of Bengal composed texts that blended elements of religion and devotion. The Nath tradition, which worshipped the guru, and the Sufi tradition, which emphasised love of God, both contributed to the rich variety of Bengali literature.

Bengal also saw the development of a distinctive style of temple architecture called the "Bengal roof" style, in which the roofs of buildings were shaped like thatched village huts, curved and sloping. This style, used in many temples of the period, shows how regional architecture grew from local building traditions.

7. The Jagannatha Cult and the Culture of Odisha

The Temple of Jagannatha

The region of Odisha, known in ancient times as Kalinga and later as Utkala, developed its own distinct culture around the Jagannatha temple at Puri. The Jagannatha cult was based on the worship of Jagannatha (literally "Lord of the Universe"), a form of Vishnu. The cult brought together the deities of Jagannatha, his brother Balabhadra, and his sister Subhadra.

The most interesting feature of the Jagannatha cult was that the chief deity, Jagannatha, was a wooden image. This allowed the image to be carried in processions, and the Ratha Yatra (chariot festival), in which the image is taken out in a huge wooden chariot, is the most famous festival of Puri. The tradition of the Jagannatha cult integrated many tribal and local traditions with Brahmanical worship.

The Temple Builders of Kalinga

The rulers of Kalinga built magnificent temples in the Kalinga style of architecture. The most famous of these is the Sun Temple at Konark, built in the thirteenth century in the form of a huge chariot of the Sun god drawn by horses. The temple of Jagannatha at Puri, with its distinctive tower, is another masterpiece. These temples were centres of religion, culture, and economic activity, and they helped to define the regional identity of Odisha.

8. Language and Literature in Regional Culture

Throughout the subcontinent, the growth of regional languages and literatures was closely connected to the making of regional cultures. Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, and Telugu all developed their modern forms during the medieval period, supported by courts, poets, and religious movements.

The regional languages were often used to express devotion, as in the abhangas of Maharashtra, the bhajans of Rajasthan, and the kirtans of Bengal. The growth of these languages helped to unite the people of a region and to give them a distinct cultural identity, even while they shared many elements of the wider Indian civilisation.

Quick Revision Tables

Table 1: Regional Cultures and Their Features

Table 2: Factors That Shaped Regional Cultures

Mind Map

Important Diagrams (SVG)

Diagram 1: The Making of a Regional Culture

Diagram 2: The Jagannatha Cult and Odisha

Common Mistakes

1. Thinking that regions and regional cultures are ancient, fixed things; they were actively made and changed through history.
2. Believing that Malayalam is a purely ancient language; it developed from Old Tamil and Sanskrit between the ninth and thirteenth centuries.
3. Confusing the Nath yogis with the Sufis; the Nath tradition worshipped the guru, while Sufis emphasised love of God in Islam.
4. Thinking that the Jagannatha image was made of stone like most temple deities; it was made of wood, which is why it could be carried in processions.
5. Believing that all Bengali literature was religious; much of it, like the Mangalakavyas, combined religion with everyday social life.
6. Confusing the Sun Temple at Konark (built in the Kalinga style in the thirteenth century) with other temples.
7. Thinking that regional culture developed independent of royal patronage; kings and sultans played a crucial role in supporting languages and temples.

Exam Tips

1. For each region, remember the specific example: Kerala (Malayalam), Rajasthan (Rajput ballads), Bengal (Mangalakavyas), Odisha (Jagannatha cult).
2. Explain the phrase "regional cultures were made, not inherited" - this is the core argument of the chapter.
3. Know the key facts of the Jagannatha cult: wooden images, Ratha Yatra, Puri.
4. Mention the Bengal roof style and the Kalinga style of temple architecture for architecture questions.
5. Link the growth of regional languages to the bhakti and sufi movements.
6. For Kerala, trace the development from Old Tamil inscriptions to a separate Malayalam language.
7. Name the Sun Temple at Konark as a masterpiece of Kalinga architecture built in the thirteenth century.

Conclusion

The making of regional cultures reveals the creative power of Indian history. Far from being fixed and ancient, regional identities were built over centuries through the interaction of language, religion, royal patronage, and local traditions. Malayalam grew from Tamil and Sanskrit in Kerala; the Rajputs shaped the heroic culture of Rajasthan; Bengal developed a rich literature from the Mangalakavyas to the works patronised by the Sultanate; and Odisha built its identity around the Jagannatha cult and the magnificent temples of the Kalinga style. Each region created its own distinct world, yet all were part of the shared civilisation of the subcontinent.